Monetary Valuation of Ecosystem Services: A Review of Methods

Ecosystem Accounts

The System of Environmental Economic Accounting - Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EA) is a spatially-based, integrated statistical framework for organizing biophysical information about ecosystems, measuring ecosystem services, tracking changes in ecosystem extent and condition, valuing ecosystem services and assets and linking this information to measures of economic and human activity. It is an integrated statistical framework adopted by the United Nations Statistical Commission.

The SEEA-EA outlines five sets of ecosystem accounts:

1. Ecosystem extent accounts

2. Ecosystem condition accounts

3. & 4. Ecosystem services flow accounts (physical and monetary)

5. Monetary ecosystem asset accounts

As part of a recent amendment to Regulation (EU) No 691/2011 on environmental economic accounts, it will be mandatory to report ecosystem extent, condition and services (physical flow) accounts in line with SEEA-EA. The monetary flow of ecosystem services and the monetary value of ecosystem assets will not need to be accounted for under the new regulation. Mandatory reporting by member states will commence in 2026.

Publications included in literature review

The literature review was conducted from May to July 2025. Any updates to publications made after this time period were not included. Although every effort was made to comprehensively cover literature within the scope of the review, it is possible that some relevant publications were inadvertently omitted.

The identification of publications to include in the literature review were based on an initial search within the websites of National Statistical Institutes (NSIs) (see Methodology). The final set of publications included in the literature review consisted of studies carried out by NSIs, Other National Authorities (ONAs) or collaborations linked to these organisations including those carried out by consultants. Some publications were in relation to pilot accounts or based on the SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting framework (e.g. Australia, China, Indonesia). These were included if they were the most recent study found. See the References section below for a complete list of publications included in the literature review.

Countries and Regions

Some valuations were relevant for only a specific region. Specifically, the Belgian publication covered only the Flanders region, the Chinese studies were for Guangxi and Guizhou provinces, the South African publication covered only KwaZulu-Natal province, the Ecuadorian publication was for the Insular Exclusive Economic Zone and only peatlands on the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan were included for Indonesia.

Ecosystem Services

It is important to note that across the literature, similar or related ecosystem services were often referred to by different terms, and not necessarily using the terminology of the SEEA-EA framework. In presenting the results of the literature review, where possible, similar or related ecosystem services found in the literature were assigned to the most appropriate SEEA-EA ecosystem service types.

Table 4.1 shows the crosswalk from the ecosystem services found in the original publications to the SEEA-EA ecosystem service types. It should be noted that despite efforts to assign ecosystem services found in the literature to the most appropriate SEEA-EA ecosystem service types, variations in ecosystem services exist in the literature that do not completely align with the SEEA-EA types. One of the main types of variations is the inclusion or exclusion of specific components of ecosystem services. Several examples of these are below:

• Fodder was excluded from Crop provisioning services but included in Grazed biomass provisioning services for the Netherlands (CBS and WUR, 2024)
• Crop provisioning services for Montserrat also included Livestock provisioning (eftec, 2021b)
• Crop provisioning services for the United Kingdom included crops, fodder and grazed biomass (ONS, 2024)
• Wild animals, plants and other biomass provisioning services for South Africa also included fish and other aquatic organisms (Turpie et al., 2021)
• Global climate regulation services for China’s Guizhou province included both carbon sequestration and oxygen provision (Guizhou Bureau of Statistics, 2021)

Additionally for Crop provisioning services, some studies included only a few key products, e.g. coffee and pineapple for Costa Rica (Aguilar-Madrigal et al. 2025).

Another important note is that related services that were valued separately in some publications were grouped together into one in this paper. For example, the timber provisioning and woodfuel provisioning services valued for the United Kingdom were grouped into one under Wood provisioning services (ONS, 2024). Similarly, nature recreation and nature tourism services were valued separately but were combined into one under Recreation-related (recreation and tourism) services for the Netherlands (CBS and WUR, 2024). Another example is the Indonesian study in which oil palm production, acacia biomass production for pulp and paddy production were all combined into Crop provisioning services (World Bank and BPS, 2019).

The original publications should be regarded as the definitive source of information and be referred to for specific details regarding the ecosystem services included in the respective studies.

Table 4.1 Ecosystem services in the original publications and crosswalk to ecosystem services in the SEEA-EA framework

Ecosystem services in original publications	SEEA-EA ecosystem service	SEEA-EA ecosystem service category
Agricultural biomass provisioning Agriculture ecosystem service Biomass production of pulp, oil palm production, paddy production Crop provision/Crop provisioning Cultivation ecosystem service	Crop provisioning	Provisioning services
Fodder and grazed biomass provisioning Grazed biomass provisioning Grazed biomass/livestock provisioning	Grazed biomass provisioning
Meat production Reared animal production	Livestock provisioning
Aquaculture provisioning	Aquaculture provisioning
Forest products Timber production Timber provisioning Timber and woodfuel provisioning Wood production in forests Wood provision/Wood provisioning	Wood provisioning
Fish/Fisheries provisioning Wild fish provisioning Wild fish and other natural aquatic biomass provisioning	Wild fish and other natural aquatic biomass provisioning
Non-timber forest products Wild animals, plants and other biomass provisioning Wild resources (wild plant and animal, including fisheries)	Wild animals, plants and other biomass provisioning
Residential and municipal water supply Water availability Water provisioning Water supply	Water supply
Carbon capture and sequestration Carbon retention Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration and oxygen provision Carbon stock Carbon storage CO2 sequestration Global climate regulation Greenhouse gas regulating	Global climate regulation	Regulating and maintenance services
Local climate regulation Regulating temperature Urban heat regulating	Local (micro and meso) climate regulation
Air filtration	Air filtration
Sediment retention Soil and sediment retention Soil erosion control Soil retention	Soil and sediment retention
Natural groundwater filtration Water purification Water quality amelioration Water quality regulation: nutrient retention	Water purification (water quality regulation)
Coastal hazard protection Coastal protection Flood mitigation	Flood control
Flow regulation: base flow maintenance Water flow regulation	Water flow regulation
Noise regulating	Noise attenuation
Crop pollination Pollination Pollination for agricultural crops	Pollination
Biological conservation	Nursery population and habitat maintenance
Farmland protection	Other regulating and maintenance services
Experiential services: tourism Nature-based tourism Nature-based tourism - related services Nature recreation Nature tourism Nature tourism economy Recreation and tourism Recreation-related Tourism	Recreation-related (recreation and tourism)	Cultural services
Recreation health benefits	Recreation-related (health)
Amenity Amenity value to property owners Health benefits of green and blue areas in the living environment Local cultural services Recreation and aesthetic	Visual amenity
Cultural value (recreational activities, aesthetic value and knowledge of species conservation)	Other cultural services

Table 4.2 contains a list of the ecosystem services identified in the literature review in terms of the SEEA-EA ecosystem service types along with their descriptions. The descriptions are based on Table 6.3 of the SEEA-EA framework unless otherwise indicated.

Table 4.2 Description of ecosystem services identified in literature review

1Source of descriptions is Table 6.3 of SEEA-EA framework (United Nations, 2024b) unless otherwise specified. 2Physical flows of these services are required reporting for EU member states under the amendment to Regulation (EU) No 691/2011 (Regulation (EU) No 2024/3024). Note that Grazed biomass provisioning services is included in Crop provisioning services under this regulation. 3This is a Provisioning service in the amendment to Regulation (EU) No 691/2011 (Regulation (EU) No 2024/3024). 4Includes both Recreation-related (recreation and tourism) and Recreation-related (health benefits) services found in the literature. Recreation-related (health benefits) services are linked to the positive effects on health and wellbeing because of trips in natural environments (ONS, 2024).
Ecosystem service	Description1
Provisioning services
Crop provisioning2	Ecosystem contributions to the growth of cultivated plants that are harvested by economic units for various uses, including food and fibre production, fodder and energy. These are final ecosystem services.
Grazed biomass provisioning2	Ecosystem contributions to the growth of grazed biomass that is an input to the growth of cultivated livestock. These services exclude ecosystem contributions to the growth of crops used to produce fodder for livestock (e.g. hay, soybean meal). Those contributions are included under crop provisioning services. These are final ecosystem services but may be intermediate to livestock provisioning services.
Livestock provisioning	Ecosystem contributions to the growth of cultivated livestock and livestock products (e.g. meat, milk, eggs, wool, leather) that are used by economic units for various purposes, primarily food production. These are final ecosystem services. No distinct livestock provisioning services are to be recorded if grazed biomass provisioning services are recorded as a final ecosystem service.
Aquaculture provisioning	Ecosystem contributions to the growth of animals and plants (e.g. fish, shellfish, seaweed) in aquaculture facilities that are harvested by economic units for various uses. These are final ecosystem services.
Wood provisioning2	Ecosystem contributions to the growth of trees and other woody biomass both in cultivated (plantation) and in uncultivated production contexts that are harvested by economic units for various uses including timber production and energy. These services, which exclude contributions to non-wood forest products, are final ecosystem services.
Wild fish and other natural aquatic biomass provisioning	Ecosystem contributions to the growth of fish and other aquatic biomass that are captured in uncultivated production contexts by economic units for various uses, primarily food production. These are final ecosystem services.
Wild animals, plants and other biomass provisioning	Ecosystem contributions to the growth of wild animals, plants and other biomass that are captured and harvested in uncultivated production contexts by economic units for various uses. The scope includes non-wood forest products (NWFP) and services related to hunting, trapping and bioprospecting activities; but it excludes wild fish and other natural aquatic biomass (included in the class directly above). These are final ecosystem services.
Water supply	Water supply services reflect the combined ecosystem contributions of water flow regulation, water purification and other ecosystem services to the supply of water of appropriate quality to users for various purposes, including household consumption. These are final ecosystem services.
Regulating and maintenance services
Global climate regulation2	Ecosystem contributions to reducing concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere through the removal (sequestration) of carbon from the atmosphere and the retention (storage) of carbon in ecosystems. These services, which support the regulation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans, are final ecosystem services.
Local (micro and meso) climate regulation2	Ecosystem contributions to the regulation of ambient atmospheric conditions (including micro- and mesoscale climates) through the presence of vegetation that improve people’s living conditions and support economic production. Examples include evaporative cooling provided by urban trees (“green space”), the contribution of urban water bodies (“blue space”) and the contribution of trees to providing shade for humans and livestock. These may be final or intermediate ecosystem services.
Air filtration2	Ecosystem contributions to the filtering of airborne pollutants through the deposition, uptake, fixing and storage of pollutants by ecosystem components, particularly plants, that mitigate the harmful effects of those pollutants. These are most commonly final ecosystem services.
Soil and sediment retention	These services consist of: Soil erosion control services which are ecosystem contributions, particularly the stabilizing effects of vegetation, that reduce the loss of soil (and sediment) and support use of the environment (e.g. agricultural activity, water supply). These may be recorded as final or intermediate ecosystem services and; Landslide mitigation services which are ecosystem contributions, particularly the stabilizing effects of vegetation, that mitigate or prevent potential damage to human health and safety and damaging effects to buildings and infrastructure that arise from the mass movement (wasting) of soil, rock and snow. These are final ecosystem services.
Water purification (water quality regulation)	Ecosystem contributions to the restoration and maintenance of the chemical condition of surface water and groundwater bodies through the breakdown or removal of nutrients and other pollutants by ecosystem components that mitigate the harmful effects of those pollutants on human use or health. These may be recorded as final or intermediate ecosystem services.
Water flow regulation	These services consist of: Baseline flow maintenance services which are ecosystem contributions to the regulation of river flows and groundwater and lake water tables. They are derived from the ability of ecosystems to absorb and store water and gradually release it during dry seasons or periods through evapotranspiration and hence secure a regular flow of water. These may be recorded as final or intermediate ecosystem services and; Peak flow mitigation services which are ecosystem contributions to the regulation of river flows and groundwater and lake water tables. They are derived from the ability of ecosystems to absorb and store water and hence mitigate the effects of flood and other extreme water-related events. Peak flow mitigation services are supplied together with river flood mitigation services in providing the benefit of flood protection. These are final ecosystem services.
Flood control	These services consist of: Coastal protection services which are ecosystem contributions of linear elements in the seascape (e.g. coral reefs, sand banks, dunes or mangrove ecosystems along the shore) to protecting the shore and thus mitigating the impacts of tidal surges or storms on local communities. These are final ecosystem services and; River flood mitigation services which are ecosystem contributions of riparian vegetation, which provides structure and a physical barrier to high water levels and thus mitigates the impacts of floods on local communities. River flood mitigation services are supplied together with peak flow mitigation services in providing the benefit of flood protection. These are final ecosystem services.
Noise attenuation	Ecosystem contributions to reduction of the impact of noise on people that mitigate its harmful or stressful effects. These are most commonly final ecosystem services.
Pollination2,3	Ecosystem contributions of wild pollinators to the fertilization of crops that maintain or increase the abundance and/or diversity of other species that economic units use or enjoy. These may be recorded as final or intermediate services.
Nursery population and habitat maintenance	Ecosystem contributions necessary for sustaining populations of species that economic units ultimately use or enjoy, either through the maintenance of habitats (e.g. for nurseries or migration) or the protection of natural gene pools. These are intermediate services and may be inputs to a number of different final ecosystem services including biomass provisioning and recreation-related services.
Other - Farmland protection	Categorised as a mitigation service, based on the the protection that forests provide to farmland (NBS, 2021).
Cultural services
Recreation-related2,4	Contributions of ecosystems, in particular through their biophysical characteristics and qualities, that enable people to use and enjoy the environment through direct, in situ, physical and experiential interactions with the environment. These include services both to locals and to non-locals (i.e. visitors, including tourists). Recreation-related services may also be supplied to those engaging in recreational fishing or hunting. These are final ecosystem services.
Visual amenity	Ecosystem contributions to local living conditions, in particular through the biophysical characteristics and qualities of ecosystems, that provide sensory benefits, especially visual. These services combine with other ecosystem services, including recreation-related services and noise attenuation services, to underpin amenity values. These are final ecosystem services.

Valuation methods

Exchange values

In order to align with concepts of the System of National Accounts (SNA), the SEEA-EA recommends the usage of exchange values for the monetary valuation of ecosystem services. In chapter 3 of SNA (2008), exchange values are defined as the “values at which goods, services, labour or assets are in fact exchanged or else could be exchanged for cash.”

Table 4.3 presents the types of valuation methods as recommended in chapter 9 of the SEEA-EA framework along with descriptions. The first five types are based on the concept of exchange values. The framework recommends that the choice of methods to be applied be made according to the order listed in the table and is recommended by SEEA-EA in the order from highest to lowest preference.

Other values

The SEEA-EA framework also recognises that there are other methods to value ecosystem services aside from the first five exchange value-based methods listed in Table 4.3 (chapter 9.3.7 in SEEA-EA framework (United Nations, 2024b)). Some of these methods found in the literature review are listed under Other methods in Table 4.3 and which includes the shadow project cost method, opportunity cost method, stated preference methods and the social cost of carbon. It is recommended that these other methods are not applied in preference over any of the top five listed in Table 4.3. If they are applied, they should be checked for consistency with exchange value principles and adjusted if required before use in ecosystem accounts.

Additionally, the framework indicates that although the exchange value approach supports comparison with accounting values of national accounts, it excludes welfare measures and is therefore limited in its application for policy and analytical purposes. Complementary approaches to valuation, such as those involving welfare values, are described in chapter 12 of the SEEA-EA.

Lastly note that although benefit transfer is also included in Other methods of Table 4.3, this approach is not a valuation method but a technique that is applied utilising data from specific locations in the estimation of monetary values in other locations (see chapter 9.5.2 in SEEA-EA framework (United Nations, 2024b)).

Valuation methods in literature review

Similar or related valuation methods found in the literature were grouped into the most relevant SEEA-EA valuation method types presented in Table 4.3.

A particular method can be applied to different ecosystem services, and different methods can be applied to the same ecosystem service. In this review, it was found that two different methods were used to value Recreation-related (recreation and tourism) services for Anguilla and Montserrat. In these two cases, the valuations were treated as separate valuations in the results of this paper.

In some cases, a combination of methods was applied to value an ecosystem service or was presented as an alternative method to another. For these, only the primary method was included in the results of this paper. An example includes the valuation for Local climate regulation services for the United Kingdom which applied both the productivity change method (avoided labour productivity loss in original publication) and replacement cost method (avoided air conditioning cost in original publication). Another example is the valuation of nature-based tourism-related services for Estonia in which the time-use method was applied as an alternative approach to the consumer expenditure method.

In some cases, valuations were excluded if details were not specified, such as the case for Anguilla in which the source of the carbon value used for Global climate regulation services (carbon sequestration in original publication) was not specified. Valuations were also excluded if it was indicated as being limited in scope, such as Flood control services (flood attenuation in original publication) in the South African study.

The original publications should be regarded as the definitive source of information and be referred to for specific details regarding the valuation methods applied to ecosystem services in the respective studies. 

Table 4.3 SEEA-EA typology of valuation methods¹

1Source of descriptions is chapter 9 of SEEA-EA (United Nations, 2024b) unless otherwise indicated.
Preference order	Type of valuation methods	Description
1	Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is directly observable	Directly observed values: Based on the direct observation of exchanges in ecosystem services. Examples: stumpage values charged to a timber logging business, renting land for crop production, carbon prices from emission trading systems.
2	Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is obtained from markets for similar goods and services	Prices from similar markets: Valuation according to market price equivalents when market prices for ecosystem services are not directly observable. Example: market price of mushrooms from one forest can be used to value non-marketed mushrooms from a similar forest, with adjustments made to account for differences between products and other factors.
3	Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is embodied in a market transaction	Valuation methods under this type include: Residual value and resource rent methods: valuation of an ecosystem service is estimated by taking the gross value of the final marketed good to which the ecosystem service provides an input and deducting the costs of all other inputs, including labor, produced assets and intermediate inputs. Productivity change method: in this method, an ecosystem service is considered an input in the production function of a marketed good, and changes in the service will lead to changes in the output of the marketed good (with all other factors equal); has been used to value services provided by water and inputs into agriculture, e.g. pollination, where detailed data are available to estimate production functions. Hedonic pricing method: estimates the differential premium on property value that arises from proximity to some environmental attribute (e.g. local park); this is a common method used to measure services related to the amenity provided to residents in particular locations.
4	Methods where the price for the ecosystem services is based on revealed expenditures (costs) for related goods and services	These methods use data on revealed expenditures on related goods and services. Commonly referred to as cost-based methods. Valuation methods under this type include: Averting behavior method: this method assumes that individuals and communities spend money on preventing or mitigating the negative effects and and damages arising from adverse environmental impacts; the revealed expenditure demonstrates the valued placed on the associated ecosytem services. Example: costs of using extra filtration to purify polluted water. Travel cost method: based on data for the costs of travelling and expenditures incurred by households or individuals to reach a site. This method is commonly used in the context of recreational areas and activity. Consumer expenditure method: involves using estimates of the travel expenditures to visit recreational sites in the form of entrance fees, transport costs and /or accommodation costs to value ecosystem services directly (NCAVES and MAIA, 2022).
5	Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is based on expected expenditures or expected markets	These methods are based on estimating the expenditures that would be expected if the ecosystem service was no longer provided or was in fact sold on a market. Valuation methods under this type include: Replacement cost method: estimates the cost of replacing an ecosystem service by a substitute that provides the same contribution to benefits. Examples: an air filtration unit for a household substituting for air filtration services of trees or water treatment plant substituting for water purification service. Avoided damage costs method: estimates the value of ecosystem services based on the costs of the damages that would occur due to the loss of those services; particularly useful for regulating services such as soil erosion control, flood control, air filtration and global climate regulation. Simulated exchange value method: estimates the price and quantity that would prevail if the ecosystem service were to be traded in a hypothetical market; method is applied by using results from demand functions for the relevant ecosystem service and calculating the price for the ecosystem service that would be obtained if it were actually marketed.
	Other methods	SEEA-EA indicates that there is a range of other methods found in environmental economics and ecoystem services valuation literature. However these methods are not preferred and are not recommended for use in an SEEA EA context without adjustments to align with the exchange value concept. Other methods mentioned in SEEA-EA include: Shadow project cost method: a variant of the replacement cost method that focuses on the hypothetical costs of providing the same ecosystem service elsewhere. Opportunity costs of alternative uses: estimates values of ecosystem services by measuring the forgone benefits of not using the same ecosystem asset for alternative uses. Example: the value of ecosystem services arising from not harvesting trees for timber, such as to supply global climate regulation services, can be estimated by using the forgone income from selling timber. Stated preference methods: based on information from questionnaires to obtain likely responses of people by asking them to state their preferences in hypothetical situations; two broad catgories include contigent valuation (survey based on willingness to pay or willingness to accept a hypothetical change in the level of provision of a good traded on a hypothetical market) and choice experiments (individual is offered a set of alternative levels of supply of goods or services with varying characteristics linked to defined dimensions of quality and cost; by analysing preferences for levels, it is possible to obtain the value placed by the individual on each of the characteristics). Social cost of carbon: Based on avoided damage costs and involves the application of an Integrated Assessment Model (NCAVES and MAIA, 2022). There is reference to this method in SEEA-EA framework but no desciption provided. Benefit transfer: This is not a valuation method but a technique that is applied utilising data from specific locations in the estimation of monetary values in other locations.

References

General references

NCAVES and MAIA (2022). Monetary valuation of ecosystem services and ecosystem assets for ecosystem accounting: Interim Version 1st edition. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division, New York. Available at: The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting website.

Regulation (EU) 2024/3024 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2024 amending Regulation (EU) No 691/2011 as regards introducing new environmental economic account modules [2024] OJ L series. Available at: The European Union law website.

Regulation (EU) No 691/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 2011 on European environmental economic accounts [2011] OJ L192/1. Available at: The European Union law website.

United Nations (2024a). Global Assessment of Environmental-Economic Accounting. System of Environmental Economic Accounting. Available at: The Global Assessment of Environmental Economic Accounting website of the United Nations.

United Nations (2024b). System of Environmental-Economic Accounting - Ecosystem Accounting. Available at: The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting website document page.

United Nations (n.d.). System of Environmental-Economic Accounting - Natural Capital Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem Services Project. Available at: The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting website NCAVES project page.

United Nations, European Commission, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and World Bank (2009). System of national accounts 2008. Available at: The System of National Accounts 2008 website of the United Nations Statistics Division.

United Nations Statistics Division (2025). Partners - National Statistical Offices. Available at: The United Nations Statistics Division website with register of National Statistical Offices.

Publications included in literature review

Aguilar-Madrigal, J., Rivera, L., Vega-Araya, M. (2025). Ecosystem Services Accounting in Costa Rica: Regulation, Provision, and Cultural Services. Central Bank of Costa Rica. Available at: The Central Bank of Costa Rica website research repository.

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2025). National Ecosystem Accounts, experimental estimates methodology. Available at: The Australian Bureau of Statistics website.

Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) (2021). Ecosystem accounts for Brazil: Results of the NCAVES project. Available at: The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting NCAVES project website - report for Brazil.

Economics for the Environment Consultancy (eftec) (2018a). Scoping UK Urban Natural Capital Account - Local Climate Regulation Extension: Final Report. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). Available at: The UK Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs website.

Economics for the Environment Consultancy (eftec) (2018b). Scoping UK Urban Natural Capital Account - Noise Extension: Final Report. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra). Available at: The UK Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs website.

Economics for the Environment Consultancy (eftec) (2021a). Anguilla Ecosystem Account Summary. Available at: The Government of Anguilla website.

Economics for the Environment Consultancy (eftec) (2021b). Montserrat Ecosystem Accounting: 2019 Ecosystem Account. Available at: The Statistics Department of Montserrat website.

Economics for the Environment Consultancy (eftec) (2021c). St. Helena Natural Capital Accounting: Briefing Report. Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC). Available at: The Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) website.

Guizhou Bureau of Statistics (2021). Appendix B: Final report on NCAVES Pilot Project in Guizhou Province. Available at: The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting NCAVES project website - report for China.

Jocque, M., De Smet, L., Carmen, R., Liekens, I., De Nocker, L., Desair, J., Heck, A., Jacobs, S., Lange, S., Campagne, S., & Burkhard, B. (2022). Country fact sheet: Belgium (BE). MAIA (Mapping and Assessment for Integrated ecosystem Accounting). Available at: The mapping and assessment for integrated ecosystem accounting (MAIA) project website.

Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) (2021). Ecosystem Accounts for India: Report of the NCAVES project. Social Statistics Division of the National Statistical Office of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI), Government of India. Available at:  Available at: The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting website - report for India.

National Bureau of Statistics of China (NBS) 2021. Ecosystem accounts for China: Results of the NCAVES project. Available at: The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting NCAVES project website - report for China.

National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) (2021). Ecosystem Accounts of Mexico: Results of the NCAVES project. Available at: The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting NCAVES project website - report for Mexico.

Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2024). UK natural capital accounts methodology guide: 2024. Available at: The Office for National Statistics UK website.

Oras, K., Ronk, A., Aun, K., Neubauer, H., Ehrlich, Ü. (2024). Development of the forestry, environmental subsidies and ecosystem accounts. Statistics Estonia. Available at: Statistics Estonia website.

Rosero R., Viteri, C., Moity, N., Ramírez, J., Tanner, M., and Silva, C. (2024). Ecosystem Accounts for the Insular Economic Exclusive Zone of Ecuador. Technical Report No. 1, 2025. Charles Darwin Foundation. Puerto Ayora, Galápagos, Ecuador. Available at: The Charles Darwin Foundation website.

Statistics Netherlands and WUR (2024). Natural Capital Accounting in the Netherlands – Technical report. Statistics Netherlands (CBS) and Wageningen University and Research (WUR). Available at: Statistics Netherlands website.

Turpie, J.K., Letley, G., Schmidt, K., Weiss, J., O’Farrell and Jewitt, D. (2021) Towards a method for accounting for ecosystem services and asset value: Pilot accounts for KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 2005–2011. South African National Biodiversity Institute(SANBI) and Statistics South Africa (Stats SA), Natural Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem Services (NCAVES) project. Available at: The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting website - report for South Africa.

Turpie, J.K., Wilson, L. Brühl, J. & Letley, G. (2023). Physical and Monetary Ecosystem Services and Asset Accounts for Uganda 1990-2015. Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), Government of Uganda, Kampala.  Available at: The Uganda Bureau of Statistics website.

The World Bank and Statistics Indonesia (BPS) (2019). Pilot Ecosystem Account for Indonesian Peatlands Sumatra and Kalimantan Islands. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available at: The Wealth Accounting and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services (WAVES) Program website.